Publikationen

• Baumann, T., & Grafe, S. (2026). An International Perspective on Media Education - Insights from Teacher Education and Adult Education Students. In Proceedings of INTED2026. International Technology, Education and Development Conference. https://opus.bibliothek.uni-wuerzburg.de/frontdoor/index/index/docId/44477
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  Digital media increasingly shapes socialization and education, making media literacy development a core educational responsibility. At the same time, contemporary societies are shaped by cultural diversity. According to a transcultural understanding, this diversity emerges as cultures become interwoven. This development is evident in educational contexts, where different cultural backgrounds must be considered and education aligned accordingly. Linking these perspectives, this study aims to examine how international students describe the current state of media education in their home countries (RQ1) and how they envision its future development (RQ2). This constitutes the exploratory phase of a design-based research (DBR) cycle. The findings are expected to inform the further development, implementation, and evaluation of a pedagogical concept and a corresponding higher education course for promoting media education competence among international teacher education and adult education students. The underlying pedagogical concept draws on an established competence-standard model for media pedagogy in the academic phase of teacher education. Additionally, it incorporates action-oriented principles, flipped classroom elements, peer feedback, and learning and assessment portfolios. The study is embedded in an international course in the 2025/ 2026 winter term at a German university. The convenience sample of n = 17 comprised students from Germany (4), Italy (4), Nigeria (3), Ghana (2), Georgia (2), Turkey (1), and Pakistan (1). To assess students’ experiences and perspectives, focus group interviews were conducted. The focus groups included four to five students from different national backgrounds. The interviews were held in English during regular course sessions and lasted around 45 minutes. Demographic and individual data on participants’ experiences, knowledge, and skills were collected via a questionnaire. The focus group data were transcribed and then analyzed by two independent researchers using qualitative content analysis. A deductive category system based on established multi-level perspectives on professionalization in educational contexts was applied, and it comprised three superordinate categories: the macro-level (state and society), meso-level (educational organizations), and micro-level (educators and learners). Findings regarding the current state of media education (RQ1) indicate that participants primarily referred to the meso-level (32 codes), focusing on organizations such as schools or universities and their curricula. Other references concerned the macro-level (19 codes), addressing prevailing conditions in the state and society, and the micro-level (16 codes), highlighting characteristics of professional staff and learners. In contrast, perspectives about the future of media education (RQ2) mainly emphasized governmental action at the macro-level (31 codes), followed by changes in teaching and learning practices at the micro-level (21 codes) and structural developments at the meso-level (19 codes). These findings identify both addressed and underrepresented areas of media education, providing indications for the further development of a pedagogical concept to enhance media education in transcultural educational settings.
• Hahn, J., & Grafe, S. (2026). Evaluation of a Pedagogical Concept for Initial Teacher Education to Foster Pre-service Teachers’ Media Education Competence. Medienimpulse, 64(1), 1-60. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.21243/mi-01-26-27
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Continuous advancements in the media landscape are leading to new requirements for promoting the media competence of children and adolescents. Accordingly, pre-service teachers should be prepared to foster media education and critical media reflection in schools. This third iteration of a design-based research study evaluates whether the learning objectives of a refined theory- and practice-based pedagogical concept, designed to enhance pre-service teachers’ media education competence, have been achieved. A convenience sample of 35 pre-service teachers completed competence-based tasks before and after the intervention and prepared media education lesson designs throughout the semester. Results from qualitative content analysis and inferential statistics indicated significant improvements in outlining the significance of students’ extracurricular media use, illustrating consequences for media education activities, outlining theoretical approaches to media education, evaluating these approaches and existing media education lesson designs, and developing their own media education lesson designs. In their lesson designs, participants engaged with students’ diverse media experiences and addressed socially responsible media education variously. Implications are provided for research and higher education practice.
• Hahn, J., Tiede, J., & Grafe, S. (2026). Fostering Pre-service Teachers’ Media Education Competence: A Pedagogical Concept for Initial Teacher Education. Cogent Education, 13(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2026.2652192
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Current advancements in the media landscape have a significant impact on adolescents’ development. Implementing media education in initial teacher education programs is essential to promote pre-service teachers’ competence to foster their future students’ media competence. In this study, we assess whether the objectives of a theory- and practice-based pedagogical concept designed to promote pre-service teachers’ media education competence have been achieved. This study represents the second iteration of a design-based research project, in which the initial version of the pedagogical concept was further developed and implemented at a German university. In an empirical evaluation conducted at pre- and post-intervention measurement points, a convenience sample of 38 pre-service teachers completed competence-based tasks. Responses were analyzed to identify differences in the development of media education competence based on the consideration of competence standards. Two consecutive phases of analysis were applied, including a qualitative content analysis followed by a Wilcoxon signed-rank test. The findings indicate that participants demonstrated significant improvements in referring to empirical findings on adolescents’ media use, discussing theoretical approaches to media education, evaluating these approaches and examples for media education activities from different perspectives, and developing media education lesson designs. Based on these results, implications are outlined for further research on theory- and practice-based pedagogical concepts aimed at enhancing the media education competence of pre-service teachers in initial teacher education.
• Pflieger, L. C. J., Baumann, T., Hartmann, M., Koch, L., Kern, F., Kullmann, P., Grafe, S., Latoschik, M. E., & Bannert, M. (2026). Exploring Scaffolding Mechanisms for Learning Regulation in Immersive Collaborative VR Environments. Technology, Knowledge and Learning. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-026-09959-6
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Immersive Virtual Reality (VR) environments offer promising opportunities for collaborative learning, yet they impose substantial sensory and cognitive demands that can challenge effective learning regulation. In collaborative contexts, these challenges are intensified by the need to coordinate individual and group-level processes, requiring heightened metacognitive awareness and shared regulation. This exploratory field study investigates the role of metacognitive scaffolding mechanisms in supporting regulation during collaborative tasks in VR. A Metacognitive Group Awareness Tool (VRMeta-REG tool) was introduced to externalize learners' perceptions of task understanding, goal setting, and planning, and to visualize group-level states intended to prompt shared reflection and regulation. A pre-post design was employed with Nthinspace=thinspace43 pre-service teachers working in dyads and triads within a VR environment. Learners used the tool prior to task engagement. Pre- and post-tests assessed learning gains and metacognitive self-perceptions, while Process Analysis (PA) and Temporal Network Analysis (TNA) were applied to visually explore regulatory dynamics during collaboration. High-performing groups demonstrated structured, cyclical regulation patterns, transitioning from early reflection to sustained cognitive engagement. In contrast, low-performing groups misjudged their metacognitive states and struggled to act on the tool's prompts, leading to fragmented regulation and distraction. These patterns suggest that although the tool facilitates regulation for some, others benefit only with additional, tailored scaffolding when learning in VR. The findings underscore the importance of adaptive scaffolding that activates early metacognitive processes and responds to learners' regulatory readiness. In sensory-rich, immersive environments, such scaffolds must be sensitive to group differences to ensure focused, sustainable collaboration.

• Baumann, T., Latoschik, M. E., & Grafe, S. (2025). Fostering Pre-Service Teachers’ Media Education Competence Integrating Social Mixed Reality and Transcultural Perspectives. In T. Bastiaens (Hrsg.), Proceedings of EdMedia + Innovate Learning (S. 1089-1098). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. https://opus.bibliothek.uni-wuerzburg.de/opus4-wuerzburg/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/43743/file/Baumann_et_al_2025_Foster_Media_Education_MR_Transculturality_accepted_manuscript.pdf
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  With digitalization and globalization increasingly shaping educational contexts, the need to foster media education competence in initial teacher education has grown. In this second iteration of a design-based research study, the researchers refine a theory- and practice-based pedagogical concept that integrates social MR and transcultural perspectives to support the development of these competencies. A semester-long, action-oriented course was implemented at a German university. The empirical evaluation focused on qualitative impact research, analyzing competence-based pre- and post-tests from a convenience sample of 17 pre-service teachers based on media education competence standards. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to support these analyses. Results indicate that post-course elaborations involved XR and transcultural perspectives, particularly in participants’ own lesson designs. The focus was set on action-oriented and racism-critical theoretical approaches, alongside practice-related and normative evaluations, while empirical references remained limited. Implications for future research and practice-oriented perspectives in teacher education are discussed.
• Baumann, T., Tiede, J., Latoschik, M. E., & Grafe, S. (2025). A Pedagogical Concept to Foster Pre-Service Teachers’ Media Education Competence Integrating Social Mixed Reality and Transcultural Education. In J. Cohen & R. Hartshorne (Hrsg.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2025 (S. 3532-3541). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. https://opus.bibliothek.uni-wuerzburg.de/opus4-wuerzburg/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/43741/file/Baumann_et_al_2025_Media_Education_Concept_MR_Transculturality_accepted_version.pdf
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  Amid digitalization, globalization, and the increasing demand for media education expertise, new pedagogical approaches are essential. As part of a design-based research study, the researchers aim to develop and implement a theory-based pedagogical concept to enhance the media education competence of pre-service teachers. The concept follows action-oriented principles and integrates social mixed reality and transcultural education. On this basis, a semester-long course was implemented in a German university’s initial teacher education program. Qualitative data were collected from the portfolios of 21 participants as a convenience sample. Results indicate that pre-service teachers incorporated teaching and learning components such as extended reality and transcultural education, particularly when designing and reflecting on media education lesson designs. However, more than half prioritized the socialization role of media over its educational significance, and some exhibited limited familiarity with theoretical approaches. Implications for future research and practice in initial teacher education are discussed.
• Hahn, J., Tiede, J., & Grafe, S. (2025). Development and Implementation of a Pedagogical Concept for Initial Teacher Education to Foster Pre-service Teachers’ Media Education Competence. American Journal of Qualitative Research, 9(3), 1-25. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/16527
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ DOI ]
  In light of the rapid processes of digitalization, teachers must possess the competence to develop adolescents’ media literacy. Against this backdrop, a theory- and practice-based pedagogical concept was developed to enhance pre-service teachers’ media education competence. This pedagogical concept is grounded in a competence-standard model for media pedagogy in initial teacher education and employs an action- and development-oriented pedagogical approach. It includes competence-oriented tasks, a structured teaching and learning process, and learning and reflection portfolios. The pedagogical concept was implemented as a semester-long course at a German University. In an exploratory case study involving a convenience sample of 71 pre-service teachers, participants’ media education lesson designs were analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Results indicate that when participants described learning prerequisites and objectives in their lesson planning, they primarily focused on adolescents’ knowledge and experiences, as well as their intellectual and socio-moral development and needs related to media use. Most participants elaborated on learning and teaching activities centered on design, followed by assessment, problem-solving, and decision-making. Conclusions and implications for further research and practice underscore the importance of theory- and evidence-based approaches to enhance pre-service teachers’ media education competence, which is essential for progressive initial teacher education.
• Hartmann, M., Tiede, J., Latoschik, M. E., & Grafe, S. (2025). Teaching and Learning with Social Mixed Reality: Fostering Teacher Educators’ Technology Competencies Focusing on Diversity. In R. J. Cohen (Hrsg.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (S. 1714-1723). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. https://opus.bibliothek.uni-wuerzburg.de/opus4-wuerzburg/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/43744/file/Hartmann_2025_TeachingAndLearningWithSocialMRFocusingOnDiversity_accepted_manuscript.pdf
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  In an increasingly diverse and digitalized society, educators require competencies in media education and diversity-sensitive teaching. In this design-based research study, we further developed an action-oriented pedagogical concept to foster Teacher Educator Technology Competencies (TETCs) focusing on media education, diverse learners’ needs, and social augmented reality (AR) technologies. Accordingly, a professional development workshop was implemented at a German university. In a qualitative empirical case study involving a convenience sample of four teacher educators, data were collected from participants’ lesson designs before and after the workshop, as well as from a focus group discussion. Findings indicate that participants reflected on various legal and ethical aspects, as well as on social responsibility when considering the integration of social AR technologies in education. Additionally, participants demonstrated increased awareness of diverse students’ needs in this context. Based on these findings, implications for future pedagogical practices and research in higher education are discussed.

• Baumann, T., Tiede, J., Latoschik, M. E., & Grafe, S. (2024). Teaching and Learning in Social Mixed Reality Focusing on Transcultural Education: Pre-Service Teachers’ Perspectives. In T. Cherner & R. Blankenship (Hrsg.), Research Highlights in Technology and Teacher Education 2024 (S. 68-85). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/224713/
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  Digitalization and globalization brought significant challenges to initial teacher education. Against this background, the researchers identify targeted implications for the development and implementation of a pedagogical concept to foster pre-service teachers’ media pedagogical competence. A sample of 15 pre-service teachers from two German universities participated in a teaching and learning scenario within a social mixed reality (MR) environment focusing on transcultural education. Subsequently, their perspectives were shared during focus group discussions and then qualitatively analyzed. Results indicate a wide range of experiences as well as anticipated opportunities and challenges for central teaching and learning components. Conclusions drawn from this study should be considered in future practices and research within initial teacher education.
• Hartmann, M., Tiede, J., Latoschik, M. E., & Grafe, S. (2024). Development and Exploratory Implementation of a Higher Education Pedagogy Concept for Teaching and Learning with Social VR Focusing on Diversity. In J. Cohen & G. Solano (Hrsg.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (S. 146-155). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. https://opus.bibliothek.uni-wuerzburg.de/opus4-wuerzburg/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/43742/file/Hartmann_2024_TeachingAndLearningWithSocialVRFocusingOnDiversity_accepted_manuscript.pdf
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  In a society characterized by processes of change regarding diversity and digitalization, new tasks arise for teacher educators. This article presents a theory based design of a pedagogical concept to promote media pedagogical competence of teacher educators focusing on diversity and using social virtual reality (VR). The concept was implemented at a German University with a convenience sample of eight higher education lecturers. Participants discussed opportunities and challenges of teaching and learning in social VR in a focus group study. The qualitative content analysis highlights numerous opportunities, such as encouraging users’ self-efficacy and self-awareness, as well as potential challenges (e.g. getting used to working with new technologies or establishing interpersonal relationships). In terms of diversity, participants most frequently addressed mental and physical abilities as well as habitus and appearance. Finally, implications for future higher education pedagogy practices and research are discussed.

• Plabst, L., Oberdörfer, S., Happel, O., & Niebling, F. (2021, Dezember). Visualisation methods for patient monitoring in anaesthetic procedures using augmented reality. 27th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology (VRST ’21). https://doi.org/10.1145/3489849.3489908
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  In health care, there are still many devices with poorly designed user interfaces that can lead to user errors. Especially in acute care, an error can lead to critical conditions in patients. Previous research has shown that the use of augmented reality can help to better monitor the condition of patients and better detect unforeseen events. The system created in this work is intended to aid in the detection of changes in patient and equipment-data in order to increase detection of critical conditions or errors.
• Oberdörfer, S., Straka, S., & Latoschik, M. E. (2021). Effects of Immersion and Visual Angle on Brand Placement Effectiveness. Proceedings of the 28th IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces Abstracts and Workshops (VR ’21), 440-441. https://doi.org/10.1109/VRW52623.2021.00102
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Typical inherent properties of immersive Virtual Reality (VR) such as felt presence might have an impact on how well brand placements are remembered. In this study, we exposed participants to brand placements in four conditions of varying degrees of immersion and visual angle on the stimulus. Placements appeared either as poster or as puzzle. We measured the recall and recognition of these placements. Our study revealed that neither immersion nor the visual angle had a significant impact on memory for brand placements.
• Oberdörfer, S., Heidrich, D., Birnstiel, S., & Latoschik, M. E. (2021). Enchanted by Your Surrounding? Measuring the Effects of Immersion and Design of Virtual Environments on Decision-Making. Frontiers in Virtual Reality, 2, 101. https://doi.org/10.3389/frvir.2021.679277
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Impaired decision-making leads to the inability to distinguish between advantageous and disadvantageous choices. The impairment of a person’s decision-making is a common goal of gambling games. Given the recent trend of gambling using immersive Virtual Reality it is crucial to investigate the effects of both immersion and the virtual environment (VE) on decision-making. In a novel user study, we measured decision-making using three virtual versions of the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). The versions differed with regard to the degree of immersion and design of the virtual environment. While emotions affect decision-making, we further measured the positive and negative affect of participants. A higher visual angle on a stimulus leads to an increased emotional response. Thus, we kept the visual angle on the Iowa Gambling Task the same between our conditions. Our results revealed no significant impact of immersion or the VE on the IGT. We further found no significant difference between the conditions with regard to positive and negative affect. This suggests that neither the medium used nor the design of the VE causes an impairment of decision-making. However, in combination with a recent study, we provide first evidence that a higher visual angle on the IGT leads to an effect of impairment.
• Oberdörfer, S., Heidrich, D., Birnstiel, S., & Latoschik, M. E. (2021). Measuring the Effects of Virtual Environment Design on Decision-Making. Proceedings of the 28th IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces Abstracts and Workshops (VR ’21), 442-443. https://doi.org/10.1109/VRW52623.2021.00103
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Recent research indicates an impairment in decision-making in im- mersive Virtual Reality (VR) when completing the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). There is a high potential for emotions to explain the IGT decision-making behavior. The design of a virtual environment (VE) can influence a user’s mood and hence potentially the decision- making. In a novel user study, we measure decision-making using three virtual versions of the IGT. The versions differ with regard to the degree of immersion and design of the VE. Our results re- vealed no significant impact of the VE on the IGT and hence on decision-making.
• Unruh, F., Landeck, M., Oberdörfer, S., Lugrin, J.-L., & Latoschik, M. E. (2021). The Influence of Avatar Embodiment on Time Perception - Towards VR for Time-Based Therapy. Frontiers in Virtual Reality, 2, 71. https://doi.org/10.3389/frvir.2021.658509
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Psycho-pathological conditions, such as depression or schizophrenia, are often accompanied by a distorted perception of time. People suffering from this conditions often report that the passage of time slows down considerably and that they are ``stuck in time.'' Virtual Reality (VR) could potentially help to diagnose and maybe treat such mental conditions. However, the conditions in which a VR simulation could correctly diagnose a time perception deviation are still unknown. In this paper, we present an experiment investigating the difference in time experience with and without a virtual body in VR, also known as avatar. The process of substituting a person's body with a virtual body is called avatar embodiment. Numerous studies demonstrated interesting perceptual, emotional, behavioral, and psychological effects caused by avatar embodiment. However, the relations between time perception and avatar embodiment are still unclear. Whether or not the presence or absence of an avatar is already influencing time perception is still open to question. Therefore, we conducted a between-subjects design with and without avatar embodiment as well as a real condition (avatar vs. no-avatar vs. real). A group of 105 healthy subjects had to wait for seven and a half minutes in a room without any distractors (e.g., no window, magazine, people, decoration) or time indicators (e.g., clocks, sunlight). The virtual environment replicates the real physical environment. Participants were unaware that they will be asked to estimate their waiting time duration as well as describing their experience of the passage of time at a later stage. Our main finding shows that the presence of an avatar is leading to a significantly faster perceived passage of time. It seems to be promising to integrate avatar embodiment in future VR time-based therapy applications as they potentially could modulate a user's perception of the passage of time. We also found no significant difference in time perception between the real and the VR conditions (avatar, no-avatar), but further research is needed to better understand this outcome.
• Oberdörfer, S., Elsässer, A., Grafe, S., & Latoschik, M. E. (2021). Grab the Frog: Comparing Intuitive Use and User Experience of a Smartphone-only, AR-only, and Tangible AR Learning Environment. Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Mobile Human-Computer Interaction (MobileHCI ’21). https://doi.org/10.1145/3447526.3472016
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  The integration of Augmented Reality (AR) in teaching concepts allows for the visualization of complex learning contents and can simultaneously enhance the learning motivation. By providing Tangible Augmented Reality (TAR), an AR learning environment receives a haptic aspect and allows for a direct manipulation of augmented learning materials. However, manipulating tangible objects while using handheld AR might reduce the intuitive use and hence user experience. Users need to simultaneously control the application and manipulate the tangible object. Therefore, we compare the differences in intuitive use and user experience evoked by varied technologies of knowledge presentation in an educational context. In particular, we compare a TAR learning environment targeting the learning of the anatomy of vertebrates to its smartphone-only and AR-only versions. The three versions of the learning environment only differ in their method of knowledge presentation. The three versions show a similar perceived intuitive use. The TAR version, however, yielded a significantly higher attractiveness and stimulation than AR-only and smartphone-only. This suggests a positive effect of TAR learning environments on the overall learning experience.
• Oberdörfer, S., Birnstiel, S., Latoschik, M. E., & Grafe, S. (2021). Mutual Benefits: Interdisciplinary Education of Pre-Service Teachers and HCI Students in VR/AR Learning Environment Design. Frontiers in Education, 6, 233. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.693012
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  The successful development and classroom integration of Virtual (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) learning environments requires competencies and content knowledge with respect to media didactics and the respective technologies. The paper discusses a pedagogical concept specifically aiming at the interdisciplinary education of pre-service teachers in collaboration with human-computer interaction students. The students’ overarching goal is the interdisciplinary realization and integration of VR/AR learning environments in teaching and learning concepts. To assist this approach, we developed a specific tutorial guiding the developmental process. We evaluate and validate the effectiveness of the overall pedagogical concept by analyzing the change in attitudes regarding 1) the use of VR/AR for educational purposes and in competencies and content knowledge regarding 2) media didactics and 3) technology. Our results indicate a significant improvement in the knowledge of media didactics and technology. We further report on four STEM learning environments that have been developed during the seminar.
• Oberdörfer, S. (2021). Better Learning with Gaming: Knowledge Encoding and Knowledge Learning Using Gamification. https://doi.org/10.25972/OPUS-21970
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Computer games are highly immersive, engaging, and motivating learning environments. By providing a tutorial at the start of a new game, players learn the basics of the game’s underlying principles as well as practice how to successfully play the game. During the actual gameplay, players repetitively apply this knowledge, thus improving it due to repeti- tion. Computer games also challenge players with a constant stream of new challenges which increase in difficulty over time. As a result, com- puter games even require players to transfer their knowledge to master these new challenges. A computer game consists of several game me- chanics. Game mechanics are the rules of a computer game and encode the game’s underlying principles. They create the virtual environments, generate a game’s challenges and allow players to interact with the game. Game mechanics also can encode real world knowledge. This knowledge may be acquired by players via gameplay. However, the actual process of knowledge encoding and knowledge learning using game mechanics has not been thoroughly defined, yet. This thesis therefore proposes a the- oretical model to define the knowledge learning using game mechanics: the Gamified Knowledge Encoding. The model is applied to design a seri- ous game for affine transformations, i.e., GEtiT, and to predict the learning outcome of playing a computer game that encodes orbital mechanics in its game mechanics, i.e., Kerbal Space Program. To assess the effects of different visualization technologies on the overall learning outcome, GEtiT visualizes the gameplay in desktop-3D and immersive virtual reality. The model’s applicability for effective game design as well as GEtiT’s overall design are evaluated in a usability study. The learning outcome of play- ing GEtiT and Kerbal Space Program is assessed in four additional user studies. The studies’ results validate the use of the Gamified Knowledge Encoding for the purpose of developing effective serious games and to predict the learning outcome of existing serious games. GEtiT and Ker- bal Space Program yield a similar training effect but a higher motivation to tackle the assignments in comparison to a traditional learning method. In conclusion, this thesis expands the understanding of using game me- chanics for an effective learning of knowledge. The presented results are of high importance for researches, educators, and developers as they also provide guidelines for the development of effective serious games.
• Fernes, D., Oberdörfer, S., & Latoschik, M. E. (2021, Dezember). Recreating a Medieval Mill as a Virtual Learning Environment. 27th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology (VRST ’21). https://doi.org/10.1145/3489849.3489899
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Historic buildings shown in open-air museums often lack a good accessibility and visitors rarely can interact with them as well as dis- played tools to learn about processes. Providing these buildings in Virtual Reality could be a great supplement for museums to provide accessible and interactive offers. To investigate the effectiveness of this approach and to derive design guidelines, we developed an in- teractive virtual replicate of a medieval mill. We present the design of the mill and the results of a preliminary usability evaluation.

• Oberdörfer, S., Heidrich, D., & Latoschik, M. E. (2020). Think Twice: The Influence of Immersion on Decision Making during Gambling in Virtual Reality. Proceedings of the 27th IEEE Virtual Reality Conference (VR ’20), 483-492. https://doi.org/10.1109/VR46266.2020.00069
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Immersive Virtual Reality (VR) is increasingly being explored as an alternative medium for gambling games to attract players. Typically, gambling games try to impair a player’s decision making, usually for the disadvantage of the players’ financial outcome. An impaired decision making results in the inability to differentiate between ad- vantageous and disadvantageous options. We investigated if and how immersion impacts decision making using a VR-based realization of the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) to pinpoint potential risks and ef- fects of gambling in VR. During the IGT, subjects are challenged to draw cards from four different decks of which two are advantageous. The selections made serve as a measure of a participant’s decision making during the task. In a novel user study, we compared the effects of immersion on decision making between a low-immersive desktop-3D-based IGT realization and a high immersive VR version. Our results revealed significantly more disadvantageous decisions when playing the immersive VR version. This indicates an impair- ing effect of immersion on simulated real life decision making and provides empirical evidence for a high risk potential of gambling games targeting immersive VR.
• Oberdörfer, S., Elsässer, A., Schraudt, D., Grafe, S., & Latoschik, M. E. (2020). Horst – The Teaching Frog: Learning the Anatomy of a Frog Using Tangible AR. Proceedings of the 2020 Mensch Und Computer Conference (MuC ’20), 303-307. https://doi.org/10.1145/3404983.3410007
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Learning environments targeting Augmented Reality (AR) visualize complex facts, can increase a learner’s motivation, and allow for the application of learning contents. When using tangible user inter- faces, the learning process receives a physical aspect improving the overall intuitive use. We present a tangible AR system targeting the learning of a frog’s anatomy. The learning environment is based on a plushfrog containing removable markers. Detecting the markers, replaces them with 3D models of the organs. By extracting indi- vidual organs, learners can inspect them up close and learn more about their functions. Our AR frog further includes a quiz for a self-assessment of the learning progress and a gamification system to raise the overall motivation.

• Oberdörfer, S., Heidrich, D., & Latoschik, M. E. (2019). Usability of Gamified Knowledge Learning in VR and Desktop-3D. Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ’19), 175:1-175:13. https://doi.org/10.1145/3290605.3300405
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Affine Transformations (ATs) often escape an intuitive approach due to their high complexity. Therefore, we developed GEtiT that directly encodes ATs in its game mechanics and scales the knowledge's level of abstraction. This results in an intuitive application as well as audiovisual presentation of ATs and hence in a knowledge learning. We also developed a specific Virtual Reality (VR) version to explore the effects of immersive VR on the learning outcomes. This paper presents our approach of directly encoding abstract knowledge in game mechanics, the conceptual design of GEtiT and its technical implementation. Both versions are compared in regard to their usability in a user study. The results show that both GEtiT versions induce a high degree of flow and elicit a good intuitive use. They validate the effectiveness of the design and the resulting knowledge application requirements. Participants favored GEtiT VR thus showing a potentially higher learning quality when using VR.
• Oberdörfer, S., & Latoschik, M. E. (2019). Predicting Learning Effects of Computer Games Using the Gamified Knowledge Encoding Model. Entertainment Computing, 32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.entcom.2019.100315
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Game mechanics encode a computer game’s underlying principles as their internal rules. These game rules consist of information relevant to a specific learning content in the case of a serious game. This paper describes an approach to predict the learning effect of computer games by analyzing the structure of the provided game mechanics. In particular, we utilize the Gamified Knowledge Encoding model to predict the learning effects of playing the computer game Kerbal Space Program (KSP). We tested the correctness of the prediction in a user study evaluating the learning effects of playing KSP. Participants achieved a significant increase in knowledge about orbital mechanics during their first gameplay hours. In the second phase of the study, we assessed KSP’s applicability as an educational tool and compared it to a traditional learning method in respect to the learning outcome. The results indicate a highly motivating and effective knowledge learning. Also, participants used KSP to validate complex theoretical spaceflight concepts.
• Oberdörfer, S., & Latoschik, M. E. (2019). Knowledge Encoding in Game Mechanics: Transfer-Oriented Knowledge Learning in Desktop-3D and VR. International Journal of Computer Games Technology, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/7626349
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Affine Transformations (ATs) are a complex and abstract learning content. Encoding the AT knowledge in Game Mechanics (GMs) achieves a repetitive knowledge application and audiovisual demonstration. Playing a serious game providing these GMs leads to motivating and effective knowledge learning. Using immersive Virtual Reality (VR) has the potential to even further increase the serious game’s learning outcome and learning quality. This paper compares the effectiveness and efficiency of desktop-3D and VR in respect to the achieved learning outcome. Also, the present study analyzes the effectiveness of an enhanced audiovisual knowledge encoding and the provision of a debriefing system. The results validate the effectiveness of the knowledge encoding in GMs to achieve knowledge learning. The study also indicates that VR is beneficial for the overall learning quality and that an enhanced audiovisual encoding has only a limited effect on the learning outcome.
• Heidrich, D., Oberdörfer, S., & Latoschik, M. E. (2019). The Effects of Immersion on Harm-Inducing Factors in Virtual Slot Machines. Proceedings of the 26th IEEE Virtual Reality Conference (VR ’19), 793-801. https://downloads.hci.informatik.uni-wuerzburg.de/2019-ieeevr-gambling-vr-preprint.pdf
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  Slot machines are one of the most played games by pathological gamblers. New technologies, e.g. immersive Virtual Reality (VR), offer more possibilities to exploit erroneous beliefs in the context of gambling. However, the risk potential of VR-based gambling has not been researched, yet. A higher immersion might increase harmful aspects, thus making VR realizations more dangerous. Measuring harm-inducing factors reveals the risk potential of virtual gambling. In a user study, we analyze a slot machine realized as a desktop 3D and as an immersive VR version. Both versions are compared in respect to effects on dissociation, urge to gamble, dark flow, and illusion of control. Our study shows significantly higher values of dissociation, dark flow, and urge to gamble in the VR version. Presence significantly correlates with all measured harm-inducing factors. We demonstrate that VR-based gambling has a higher risk potential. This creates the importance of regulating VR-based gam- bling.
• Steinhaeusser, S. C., Riedmann, A., Haller, M., Oberdörfer, S., Bucher, K., & Latoschik, M. E. (2019). Fancy Fruits - An Augmented Reality Application for Special Needs Education. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Virtual Worlds and Games for Serious Applications (VS Games 2019), 1-4. https://downloads.hci.informatik.uni-wuerzburg.de/2019-vsgames-fancy-fruits-preprint.pdf
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  Augmented Reality (AR) allows for a connection between real and virtual worlds, thus providing a high potential for Special Needs Education (SNE). We developed an educational application called Fancy Fruits to teach disabled children the components of regional fruits and vegetables. The app includes marker-based AR elements connecting the real situation with virtual information. To evaluate the application, a field study was conducted. Eleven children with mental disabilities took part in the study. The results show a high enjoyment of the participants. The study also validated the app’s child-friendly design.

• Oberdörfer, S., Fischbach, M., & Latoschik, M. E. (2018). Effects of VE Transition Techniques on Presence, IVBO, Efficiency, and Naturalness. Proceedings of the 6th Symposium on Spatial User Interaction (SUI ’18), 89-99. https://doi.org/10.1145/3267782.3267787
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  Several transition techniques (TTs) exist for Virtual Reality (VR) that allow users to travel to a new target location in the vicinity of their current position. To overcome a greater distance or even move to a different Virtual Environment (VE) other TTs are required that allow for an immediate, quick, and believable change of location. Such TTs are especially relevant for VR user studies and storytelling in VR, yet their effect on the experienced presence, illusion of virtual body ownership (IVBO), and naturalness as well as their efficiency is largely unexplored. In this paper we thus identify and compare three metaphors for transitioning between VEs with respect to those qualities: an in-VR head-mounted display metaphor, a turn around metaphor, and a simulated blink metaphor. Surprisingly, the results show that the tested metaphors did not affect the experienced presence and IVBO. This is especially important for researchers and game designers who want to build more natural VEs.
• Oberdörfer, S., & Latoschik, M. E. (2018). Effectivity of Affine Transformation Knowledge Training Using Game Mechanics. In IEEE (Hrsg.), Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Virtual Worlds and Games for Serious Applications (VS Games ’18) (S. 1-8). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/VS-Games.2018.8493418
  • [ Abstract ]
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]
  The Gamified Training Environment for Affine Transformation (GEtiT) was developed as a demonstrator for the Gamified Knowledge Encoding model (GKE). The GKE is a novel framework that defines knowledge training using game mechanics (GMs). It describes the process of directly encoding learning contents in GMs to allow for an engaging and effective transfer-oriented knowledge training. Overall, GEtiT is developed to facilitate the training process of the complex and abstract Affine Transformation (AT) knowledge. The complexity of the AT makes it hard to demonstrate this learning content thus learners frequently experience issues when trying to develop an understanding for its application. During the gameplay, the application of the AT’s mathematical grounded aspects is required and information about the underlying principles are provided. In this article, a short overview over GEtiT’s structure and the knowledge encoding process is given. Also, this article presents the results of a study measuring the training effectivity and motivational aspects of GEtiT. The results indicate a training outcome similar to a traditional paper-based training method but a higher motivation of the GEtiT players. Hence, GEtiT yields a higher learning quality.
• Tiede, J., & Grafe, S. (2018). Triseum Game-Based Learning Validation Study Evaluation Report. http://storage.eun.org/eun-form-submission/1226/Triseum_Pilot_report-1.pdf
  • [ URL ]

• Herzig, B., & Grafe, S. (2009). Bildungsstandards für die Medienbildung in internationaler Sicht. Medienimpulse, 47(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.21243/mi-01-09-04
  • [ URL ]
  • [ DOI ]